A method using immunoinformatics has been developed to design a universal multi-epitope nanoparticle vaccine for the TGEV S protein. This approach has also been applied to design vaccine candidates against various other diseases, including foot-and-mouth disease, chikungunya, and influenza. The use of immunoinformatics and related techniques, such as reverse vaccinology, has been explored in the design of multi-epitope vaccines for a range of viruses and bacteria.